diff --git a/system/BaseModel.php b/system/BaseModel.php
index d3b3cd56bbdd..5218154ce98f 100644
--- a/system/BaseModel.php
+++ b/system/BaseModel.php
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@
 /**
  * The BaseModel class provides a number of convenient features that
  * makes working with a databases less painful. Extending this class
- * provide means of implementing various database systems
+ * provide means of implementing various database systems.
  *
  * It will:
  *      - simplifies pagination
@@ -60,21 +60,22 @@ abstract class BaseModel
 {
     /**
      * Pager instance.
-     * Populated after calling $this->paginate()
+     *
+     * Populated after calling `$this->paginate()`.
      *
      * @var Pager
      */
     public $pager;
 
     /**
-     * Database Connection
+     * Database Connection.
      *
      * @var BaseConnection
      */
     protected $db;
 
     /**
-     * Last insert ID
+     * Last insert ID.
      *
      * @var int|string
      */
@@ -90,14 +91,17 @@ abstract class BaseModel
 
     /**
      * The format that the results should be returned as.
-     * Will be overridden if the as* methods are used.
      *
-     * @var string
+     * Will be overridden if the `$this->asArray()`, `$this->asObject()` methods are used.
+     *
+     * @var 'array'|'object'|class-string
      */
     protected $returnType = 'array';
 
     /**
-     * Used by asArray() and asObject() to provide
+     * The temporary format of the result.
+     *
+     * Used by `$this->asArray()` and `$this->asObject()` to provide
      * temporary overrides of model default.
      *
      * @var 'array'|'object'|class-string
@@ -107,14 +111,14 @@ abstract class BaseModel
     /**
      * Array of column names and the type of value to cast.
      *
-     * @var array<string, string> [column => type]
+     * @var array<string, string> Array order `['column' => 'type']`.
      */
     protected array $casts = [];
 
     /**
      * Custom convert handlers.
      *
-     * @var array<string, class-string> [type => classname]
+     * @var array<string, class-string> Array order `['type' => 'classname']`.
      */
     protected array $castHandlers = [];
 
@@ -122,9 +126,9 @@ abstract class BaseModel
 
     /**
      * Determines whether the model should protect field names during
-     * mass assignment operations such as insert() and update().
+     * mass assignment operations such as $this->insert(), $this->update().
      *
-     * When set to true, only the fields explicitly defined in the $allowedFields
+     * When set to `true`, only the fields explicitly defined in the `$allowedFields`
      * property will be allowed for mass assignment. This helps prevent
      * unintended modification of database fields and improves security
      * by avoiding mass assignment vulnerabilities.
@@ -153,21 +157,19 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * The type of column that created_at and updated_at
      * are expected to.
      *
-     * Allowed: 'datetime', 'date', 'int'
-     *
-     * @var string
+     * @var 'date'|'datetime'|'int'
      */
     protected $dateFormat = 'datetime';
 
     /**
-     * The column used for insert timestamps
+     * The column used for insert timestamps.
      *
      * @var string
      */
     protected $createdField = 'created_at';
 
     /**
-     * The column used for update timestamps
+     * The column used for update timestamps.
      *
      * @var string
      */
@@ -183,15 +185,15 @@ abstract class BaseModel
     protected $useSoftDeletes = false;
 
     /**
-     * Used by withDeleted to override the
-     * model's softDelete setting.
+     * Used by $this->withDeleted() to override the
+     * model's "softDelete" setting.
      *
      * @var bool
      */
     protected $tempUseSoftDeletes;
 
     /**
-     * The column used to save soft delete state
+     * The column used to save soft delete state.
      *
      * @var string
      */
@@ -208,10 +210,10 @@ abstract class BaseModel
     protected bool $updateOnlyChanged = true;
 
     /**
-     * Rules used to validate data in insert(), update(), save(),
-     * insertBatch(), and updateBatch() methods.
+     * Rules used to validate data
+     * in $this->insert(), $this->update(), $this->save() methods.
      *
-     * The array must match the format of data passed to the Validation
+     * The array must match the format of data passed to the `Validation`
      * library.
      *
      * @see https://codeigniter4.github.io/userguide/models/model.html#setting-validation-rules
@@ -224,12 +226,14 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      * Contains any custom error messages to be
      * used during data validation.
      *
-     * @var array<string, array<string, string>>
+     * @var array<string, array<string, string>> The column is used as the keys.
      */
     protected $validationMessages = [];
 
     /**
-     * Skip the model's validation. Used in conjunction with skipValidation()
+     * Skip the model's validation.
+     *
+     * Used in conjunction with `$this->skipValidation()`
      * to skip data validation for any future calls.
      *
      * @var bool
@@ -265,99 +269,99 @@ abstract class BaseModel
      */
 
     /**
-     * Whether to trigger the defined callbacks
+     * Whether to trigger the defined callbacks.
      *
      * @var bool
      */
     protected $allowCallbacks = true;
 
     /**
-     * Used by allowCallbacks() to override the
-     * model's allowCallbacks setting.
+     * Used by $this->allowCallbacks() to override the
+     * model's $allowCallbacks setting.
      *
      * @var bool
      */
     protected $tempAllowCallbacks;
 
     /**
-     * Callbacks for beforeInsert
+     * Callbacks for "beforeInsert" event.
      *
      * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $beforeInsert = [];
 
     /**
-     * Callbacks for afterInsert
+     * Callbacks for "afterInsert" event.
      *
      * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $afterInsert = [];
 
     /**
-     * Callbacks for beforeUpdate
+     * Callbacks for "beforeUpdate" event.
      *
      * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $beforeUpdate = [];
 
     /**
-     * Callbacks for afterUpdate
+     * Callbacks for "afterUpdate" event.
      *
      * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $afterUpdate = [];
 
     /**
-     * Callbacks for beforeInsertBatch
+     * Callbacks for "beforeInsertBatch" event.
      *
      * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $beforeInsertBatch = [];
 
     /**
-     * Callbacks for afterInsertBatch
+     * Callbacks for "afterInsertBatch" event.
      *
      * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $afterInsertBatch = [];
 
     /**
-     * Callbacks for beforeUpdateBatch
+     * Callbacks for "beforeUpdateBatch" event.
      *
      * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $beforeUpdateBatch = [];
 
     /**
-     * Callbacks for afterUpdateBatch
+     * Callbacks for "afterUpdateBatch" event.
      *
      * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $afterUpdateBatch = [];
 
     /**
-     * Callbacks for beforeFind
+     * Callbacks for "beforeFind" event.
      *
      * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $beforeFind = [];
 
     /**
-     * Callbacks for afterFind
+     * Callbacks for "afterFind" event.
      *
      * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $afterFind = [];
 
     /**
-     * Callbacks for beforeDelete
+     * Callbacks for "beforeDelete" event.
      *
      * @var list<string>
      */
     protected $beforeDelete = [];
 
     /**
-     * Callbacks for afterDelete
+     * Callbacks for "afterDelete" event.
      *
      * @var list<string>
      */
@@ -408,13 +412,15 @@ protected function initialize()
     }
 
     /**
-     * Fetches the row of database.
+     * Fetches the row(s) of database with a primary key
+     * matching $id.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param bool                  $singleton Single or multiple results
-     * @param array|int|string|null $id        One primary key or an array of primary keys
+     * @param bool                             $singleton Single or multiple results.
+     * @param int|list<int|string>|string|null $id        One primary key or an array of primary keys.
      *
-     * @return array|object|null The resulting row of data, or null.
+     * @return         list<object|row_array>|object|row_array|null                          The resulting row of data or null.
+     * @phpstan-return ($singleton is true ? object|row_array|null : list<object|row_array>)
      */
     abstract protected function doFind(bool $singleton, $id = null);
 
@@ -422,9 +428,7 @@ abstract protected function doFind(bool $singleton, $id = null);
      * Fetches the column of database.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param string $columnName Column Name
-     *
-     * @return array|null The resulting row of data, or null if no data found.
+     * @return list<row_array>|null The resulting row of data or null if no data found.
      *
      * @throws DataException
      */
@@ -434,10 +438,7 @@ abstract protected function doFindColumn(string $columnName);
      * Fetches all results, while optionally limiting them.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param int|null $limit  Limit
-     * @param int      $offset Offset
-     *
-     * @return array
+     * @return list<object|row_array>
      */
     abstract protected function doFindAll(?int $limit = null, int $offset = 0);
 
@@ -445,7 +446,7 @@ abstract protected function doFindAll(?int $limit = null, int $offset = 0);
      * Returns the first row of the result set.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @return array|object|null
+     * @return object|row_array|null
      */
     abstract protected function doFirst();
 
@@ -453,8 +454,7 @@ abstract protected function doFirst();
      * Inserts data into the current database.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param         array     $row Row data
-     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
+     * @param row_array $row
      *
      * @return bool
      */
@@ -464,12 +464,12 @@ abstract protected function doInsert(array $row);
      * Compiles batch insert and runs the queries, validating each row prior.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param array|null $set       An associative array of insert values
-     * @param bool|null  $escape    Whether to escape values
-     * @param int        $batchSize The size of the batch to run
-     * @param bool       $testing   True means only number of records is returned, false will execute the query
+     * @param list<object|row_array>|null $set       An associative array of insert values
+     * @param bool|null                   $escape    Whether to escape values
+     * @param int                         $batchSize The size of the batch to run
+     * @param bool                        $testing   `true` means only number of records is returned, `false` will execute the query
      *
-     * @return bool|int Number of rows inserted or FALSE on failure
+     * @return false|int|list<string> Number of rows affected or `false` on failure, SQL array when test mode
      */
     abstract protected function doInsertBatch(?array $set = null, ?bool $escape = null, int $batchSize = 100, bool $testing = false);
 
@@ -477,9 +477,8 @@ abstract protected function doInsertBatch(?array $set = null, ?bool $escape = nu
      * Updates a single record in the database.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param         array|int|string|null $id  ID
-     * @param         array|null            $row Row data
-     * @phpstan-param row_array|null        $row
+     * @param array<int|string, int|string>|int|string|null $id
+     * @param row_array|null                                $row
      */
     abstract protected function doUpdate($id = null, $row = null): bool;
 
@@ -487,42 +486,43 @@ abstract protected function doUpdate($id = null, $row = null): bool;
      * Compiles an update and runs the query.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param array|null  $set       An associative array of update values
-     * @param string|null $index     The where key
-     * @param int         $batchSize The size of the batch to run
-     * @param bool        $returnSQL True means SQL is returned, false will execute the query
+     * @param list<object|row_array>|null $set       An associative array of update values
+     * @param string|null                 $index     The where key
+     * @param int                         $batchSize The size of the batch to run
+     * @param bool                        $returnSQL `true` means SQL is returned, `false` will execute the query
      *
-     * @return false|int|list<string> Number of rows affected or FALSE on failure, SQL array when testMode
+     * @return false|int|list<string> Number of rows affected or `false` on failure, SQL array when test mode
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
     abstract protected function doUpdateBatch(?array $set = null, ?string $index = null, int $batchSize = 100, bool $returnSQL = false);
 
     /**
-     * Deletes a single record from the database where $id matches.
+     * Deletes a single record from the database where $id matches
+     * the table's primary key.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param array|int|string|null $id    The rows primary key(s)
-     * @param bool                  $purge Allows overriding the soft deletes setting.
+     * @param array<int|string, int|string>|int|string|null $id    The rows primary key(s)
+     * @param bool                                          $purge Allows overriding the soft deletes setting
      *
-     * @return bool|string
+     * @return bool|string Returns a SQL string if in test mode
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
     abstract protected function doDelete($id = null, bool $purge = false);
 
     /**
-     * Permanently deletes all rows that have been marked as deleted.
-     * through soft deletes (deleted = 1).
+     * Permanently deletes all rows that have been marked as deleted
+     * through soft deletes (value of column $deletedField is not null).
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @return bool|string Returns a string if in test mode.
+     * @return bool|string Returns a SQL string if in test mode
      */
     abstract protected function doPurgeDeleted();
 
     /**
-     * Works with the find* methods to return only the rows that
-     * have been deleted.
+     * Works with the $this->find* methods to return only the rows that
+     * have been deleted (value of column $deletedField is not null).
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
      * @return void
@@ -533,8 +533,8 @@ abstract protected function doOnlyDeleted();
      * Compiles a replace and runs the query.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param row_array|null $row       Row data
-     * @param bool           $returnSQL Set to true to return Query String
+     * @param row_array|null $row
+     * @param bool           $returnSQL `true` means SQL is returned, `false` will execute the query
      *
      * @return BaseResult|false|Query|string
      */
@@ -549,12 +549,12 @@ abstract protected function doReplace(?array $row = null, bool $returnSQL = fals
     abstract protected function doErrors();
 
     /**
-     * Public getter to return the id value using the idValue() method.
-     * For example with SQL this will return $data->$this->primaryKey.
+     * Public getter to return the id value for the data array or object.
+     * For example with SQL this will return `$data->{$this->primaryKey}`.
      *
-     * @param object|row_array $row Row data
+     * @param object|row_array $row
      *
-     * @return array|int|string|null
+     * @return int|string|null
      */
     abstract public function getIdValue($row);
 
@@ -562,10 +562,12 @@ abstract public function getIdValue($row);
      * Override countAllResults to account for soft deleted accounts.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param bool $reset Reset
-     * @param bool $test  Test
+     * @param bool $reset When `false`, the `$tempUseSoftDeletes` will be
+     *                    dependent on `$useSoftDeletes` value because we don't
+     *                    want to add the same "where" condition for the second time
+     * @param bool $test  `true` returns the number of all records, `false` will execute the query
      *
-     * @return int|string
+     * @return int|string Returns a SQL string if in test mode
      */
     abstract public function countAllResults(bool $reset = true, bool $test = false);
 
@@ -573,8 +575,7 @@ abstract public function countAllResults(bool $reset = true, bool $test = false)
      * Loops over records in batches, allowing you to operate on them.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param int                                          $size     Size
-     * @param Closure(array<string, string>|object): mixed $userFunc Callback Function
+     * @param Closure(array<string, string>|object): mixed $userFunc
      *
      * @return void
      *
@@ -585,10 +586,10 @@ abstract public function chunk(int $size, Closure $userFunc);
     /**
      * Fetches the row of database.
      *
-     * @param array|int|string|null $id One primary key or an array of primary keys
+     * @param int|list<int|string>|string|null $id One primary key or an array of primary keys
      *
-     * @return         array|object|null                                                    The resulting row of data, or null.
-     * @phpstan-return ($id is int|string ? row_array|object|null : list<row_array|object>)
+     * @return         list<object|row_array>|object|row_array|null
+     * @phpstan-return ($id is int|string ? object|row_array|null :  list<object|row_array>)
      */
     public function find($id = null)
     {
@@ -628,9 +629,7 @@ public function find($id = null)
     /**
      * Fetches the column of database.
      *
-     * @param string $columnName Column Name
-     *
-     * @return array|null The resulting row of data, or null if no data found.
+     * @return list<bool|float|int|list<mixed>|object|string|null>|null The resulting row of data, or null if no data found
      *
      * @throws DataException
      */
@@ -648,10 +647,7 @@ public function findColumn(string $columnName)
     /**
      * Fetches all results, while optionally limiting them.
      *
-     * @param int $limit  Limit
-     * @param int $offset Offset
-     *
-     * @return array
+     * @return list<object|row_array>
      */
     public function findAll(?int $limit = null, int $offset = 0)
     {
@@ -696,7 +692,7 @@ public function findAll(?int $limit = null, int $offset = 0)
     /**
      * Returns the first row of the result set.
      *
-     * @return array|object|null
+     * @return object|row_array|null
      */
     public function first()
     {
@@ -731,12 +727,14 @@ public function first()
 
     /**
      * A convenience method that will attempt to determine whether the
-     * data should be inserted or updated. Will work with either
-     * an array or object. When using with custom class objects,
+     * data should be inserted or updated.
+     *
+     * Will work with either an array or object.
+     * When using with custom class objects,
      * you must ensure that the class will provide access to the class
      * variables, even if through a magic method.
      *
-     * @param object|row_array $row Row data
+     * @param object|row_array $row
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
@@ -761,16 +759,15 @@ public function save($row): bool
 
     /**
      * This method is called on save to determine if entry have to be updated.
-     * If this method returns false insert operation will be executed
+     * If this method returns `false` insert operation will be executed.
      *
-     * @param         array|object     $row Row data
-     * @phpstan-param row_array|object $row
+     * @param object|row_array $row
      */
     protected function shouldUpdate($row): bool
     {
         $id = $this->getIdValue($row);
 
-        return ! ($id === null || $id === [] || $id === '');
+        return $id !== null && $id !== '';
     }
 
     /**
@@ -787,10 +784,11 @@ public function getInsertID()
      * Inserts data into the database. If an object is provided,
      * it will attempt to convert it to an array.
      *
-     * @param object|row_array|null $row      Row data
-     * @param bool                  $returnID Whether insert ID should be returned or not.
+     * @param object|row_array|null $row
+     * @param bool                  $returnID Whether insert ID should be returned or not
      *
-     * @return ($returnID is true ? false|int|string : bool)
+     * @return         bool|int|string
+     * @phpstan-return ($returnID is true ? false|int|string : bool)
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
@@ -864,7 +862,7 @@ public function insert($row = null, bool $returnID = true)
      * Set datetime to created field.
      *
      * @param row_array  $row
-     * @param int|string $date timestamp or datetime string
+     * @param int|string $date Timestamp or datetime string
      */
     protected function setCreatedField(array $row, $date): array
     {
@@ -879,7 +877,7 @@ protected function setCreatedField(array $row, $date): array
      * Set datetime to updated field.
      *
      * @param row_array  $row
-     * @param int|string $date timestamp or datetime string
+     * @param int|string $date Timestamp or datetime string
      */
     protected function setUpdatedField(array $row, $date): array
     {
@@ -893,12 +891,12 @@ protected function setUpdatedField(array $row, $date): array
     /**
      * Compiles batch insert runs the queries, validating each row prior.
      *
-     * @param list<object|row_array>|null $set       an associative array of insert values
+     * @param list<object|row_array>|null $set       An associative array of insert values
      * @param bool|null                   $escape    Whether to escape values
      * @param int                         $batchSize The size of the batch to run
-     * @param bool                        $testing   True means only number of records is returned, false will execute the query
+     * @param bool                        $testing   `true` means only number of records is returned, `false` will execute the query
      *
-     * @return bool|int Number of rows inserted or FALSE on failure
+     * @return false|int|list<string> Number of rows inserted or `false` on failure
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
@@ -961,19 +959,14 @@ public function insertBatch(?array $set = null, ?bool $escape = null, int $batch
      * Updates a single record in the database. If an object is provided,
      * it will attempt to convert it into an array.
      *
-     * @param         array|int|string|null $id
-     * @param         array|object|null     $row Row data
-     * @phpstan-param row_array|object|null $row
+     * @param array<int|string, int|string>|int|string|null $id
+     * @param object|row_array|null                         $row
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
     public function update($id = null, $row = null): bool
     {
-        if (is_bool($id)) {
-            throw new InvalidArgumentException('update(): argument #1 ($id) should not be boolean.');
-        }
-
-        if (is_numeric($id) || is_string($id)) {
+        if ($this->hasAllowedValueId($id)) {
             $id = [$id];
         }
 
@@ -1023,12 +1016,12 @@ public function update($id = null, $row = null): bool
     /**
      * Compiles an update and runs the query.
      *
-     * @param list<object|row_array>|null $set       an associative array of insert values
+     * @param list<object|row_array>|null $set       An associative array of insert values
      * @param string|null                 $index     The where key
      * @param int                         $batchSize The size of the batch to run
-     * @param bool                        $returnSQL True means SQL is returned, false will execute the query
+     * @param bool                        $returnSQL `true` means SQL is returned, `false` will execute the query
      *
-     * @return false|int|list<string> Number of rows affected or FALSE on failure, SQL array when testMode
+     * @return false|int|list<string> Number of rows affected or `false` on failure, SQL array when test mode
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      * @throws ReflectionException
@@ -1092,19 +1085,15 @@ public function updateBatch(?array $set = null, ?string $index = null, int $batc
      * Deletes a single record from the database where $id matches.
      *
      * @param int|list<int|string>|string|null $id    The rows primary key(s)
-     * @param bool                             $purge Allows overriding the soft deletes setting.
+     * @param bool                             $purge Allows overriding the soft deletes setting
      *
-     * @return BaseResult|bool
+     * @return bool|string Returns a SQL string if in test mode
      *
      * @throws DatabaseException
      */
     public function delete($id = null, bool $purge = false)
     {
-        if (is_bool($id)) {
-            throw new InvalidArgumentException('delete(): argument #1 ($id) should not be boolean.');
-        }
-
-        if (! in_array($id, [null, 0, '0'], true) && (is_numeric($id) || is_string($id))) {
+        if ($this->hasAllowedValueId($id)) {
             $id = [$id];
         }
 
@@ -1135,9 +1124,9 @@ public function delete($id = null, bool $purge = false)
 
     /**
      * Permanently deletes all rows that have been marked as deleted
-     * through soft deletes (deleted = 1).
+     * through soft deletes (value of column $deletedField is not null).
      *
-     * @return bool|string Returns a string if in test mode.
+     * @return bool|string Returns a SQL string if in test mode
      */
     public function purgeDeleted()
     {
@@ -1152,8 +1141,6 @@ public function purgeDeleted()
      * Sets $useSoftDeletes value so that we can temporarily override
      * the soft deletes settings. Can be used for all find* methods.
      *
-     * @param bool $val Value
-     *
      * @return $this
      */
     public function withDeleted(bool $val = true)
@@ -1164,7 +1151,7 @@ public function withDeleted(bool $val = true)
     }
 
     /**
-     * Works with the find* methods to return only the rows that
+     * Works with the $this->find* methods to return only the rows that
      * have been deleted.
      *
      * @return $this
@@ -1180,8 +1167,8 @@ public function onlyDeleted()
     /**
      * Compiles a replace and runs the query.
      *
-     * @param row_array|null $row       Row data
-     * @param bool           $returnSQL Set to true to return Query String
+     * @param row_array|null $row
+     * @param bool           $returnSQL `true` means SQL is returned, `false` will execute the query
      *
      * @return BaseResult|false|Query|string
      */
@@ -1200,12 +1187,13 @@ public function replace(?array $row = null, bool $returnSQL = false)
     }
 
     /**
-     * Grabs the last error(s) that occurred. If data was validated,
-     * it will first check for errors there, otherwise will try to
-     * grab the last error from the Database connection.
+     * Grabs the last error(s) that occurred.
+     *
+     * If data was validated, it will first check for errors there,
+     *  otherwise will try to grab the last error from the Database connection.
      *
      * The return array should be in the following format:
-     *  ['source' => 'message']
+     *  `['source' => 'message']`.
      *
      * @param bool $forceDB Always grab the db error, not validation
      *
@@ -1231,11 +1219,11 @@ public function errors(bool $forceDB = false)
      * to display.
      *
      * @param int|null $perPage Items per page
-     * @param string   $group   Will be used by the pagination library to identify a unique pagination set.
+     * @param string   $group   Will be used by the pagination library to identify a unique pagination set
      * @param int|null $page    Optional page number (useful when the page number is provided in different way)
      * @param int      $segment Optional URI segment number (if page number is provided by URI segment)
      *
-     * @return array|null
+     * @return list<object|row_array>
      */
     public function paginate(?int $perPage = null, string $group = 'default', ?int $page = null, int $segment = 0)
     {
@@ -1258,7 +1246,7 @@ public function paginate(?int $perPage = null, string $group = 'default', ?int $
     /**
      * It could be used when you have to change default or override current allowed fields.
      *
-     * @param array $allowedFields Array with names of fields
+     * @param list<string> $allowedFields Array with names of fields
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -1273,8 +1261,6 @@ public function setAllowedFields(array $allowedFields)
      * Sets whether or not we should whitelist data set during
      * updates or inserts against $this->availableFields.
      *
-     * @param bool $protect Value
-     *
      * @return $this
      */
     public function protect(bool $protect = true)
@@ -1291,8 +1277,7 @@ public function protect(bool $protect = true)
      * @used-by update() to protect against mass assignment vulnerabilities.
      * @used-by updateBatch() to protect against mass assignment vulnerabilities.
      *
-     * @param         array     $row Row data
-     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
+     * @param row_array $row
      *
      * @throws DataException
      */
@@ -1322,8 +1307,7 @@ protected function doProtectFields(array $row): array
      * @used-by insert() to protect against mass assignment vulnerabilities.
      * @used-by insertBatch() to protect against mass assignment vulnerabilities.
      *
-     * @param         array     $row Row data
-     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
+     * @param row_array $row
      *
      * @throws DataException
      */
@@ -1333,17 +1317,17 @@ protected function doProtectFieldsForInsert(array $row): array
     }
 
     /**
-     * Sets the date or current date if null value is passed.
+     * Sets the timestamp or current timestamp if null value is passed.
      *
-     * @param int|null $userData An optional PHP timestamp to be converted.
+     * @param int|null $userDate An optional PHP timestamp to be converted
      *
      * @return int|string
      *
      * @throws ModelException
      */
-    protected function setDate(?int $userData = null)
+    protected function setDate(?int $userDate = null)
     {
-        $currentDate = $userData ?? Time::now()->getTimestamp();
+        $currentDate = $userDate ?? Time::now()->getTimestamp();
 
         return $this->intToDate($currentDate);
     }
@@ -1359,8 +1343,6 @@ protected function setDate(?int $userData = null)
      *  - 'datetime' - Stores the data in the SQL datetime format
      *  - 'date'     - Stores the date (only) in the SQL date format.
      *
-     * @param int $value value
-     *
      * @return int|string
      *
      * @throws ModelException
@@ -1383,8 +1365,6 @@ protected function intToDate(int $value)
      *  - 'datetime' - Stores the data in the SQL datetime format
      *  - 'date'     - Stores the date (only) in the SQL date format.
      *
-     * @param Time $value value
-     *
      * @return int|string
      */
     protected function timeToDate(Time $value)
@@ -1398,9 +1378,7 @@ protected function timeToDate(Time $value)
     }
 
     /**
-     * Set the value of the skipValidation flag.
-     *
-     * @param bool $skip Value
+     * Set the value of the $skipValidation flag.
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -1415,7 +1393,7 @@ public function skipValidation(bool $skip = true)
      * Allows to set (and reset) validation messages.
      * It could be used when you have to change default or override current validate messages.
      *
-     * @param array $validationMessages Value
+     * @param array<string, array<string, string>> $validationMessages
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -1430,8 +1408,7 @@ public function setValidationMessages(array $validationMessages)
      * Allows to set field wise validation message.
      * It could be used when you have to change default or override current validate messages.
      *
-     * @param string $field         Field Name
-     * @param array  $fieldMessages Validation messages
+     * @param array<string, string> $fieldMessages
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -1446,7 +1423,7 @@ public function setValidationMessage(string $field, array $fieldMessages)
      * Allows to set (and reset) validation rules.
      * It could be used when you have to change default or override current validate rules.
      *
-     * @param array<string, array<string, array<string, string>|string>|string> $validationRules Value
+     * @param array<string, array<string, array<string, string>|string>|string> $validationRules
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -1461,8 +1438,7 @@ public function setValidationRules(array $validationRules)
      * Allows to set field wise validation rules.
      * It could be used when you have to change default or override current validate rules.
      *
-     * @param string       $field      Field Name
-     * @param array|string $fieldRules Validation rules
+     * @param array<string, array<string, string>|string>|string $fieldRules
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -1490,8 +1466,6 @@ public function setValidationRule(string $field, $fieldRules)
      * Should validation rules be removed before saving?
      * Most handy when doing updates.
      *
-     * @param bool $choice Value
-     *
      * @return $this
      */
     public function cleanRules(bool $choice = false)
@@ -1505,8 +1479,7 @@ public function cleanRules(bool $choice = false)
      * Validate the row data against the validation rules (or the validation group)
      * specified in the class property, $validationRules.
      *
-     * @param         array|object     $row Row data
-     * @phpstan-param row_array|object $row
+     * @param object|row_array $row
      */
     public function validate($row): bool
     {
@@ -1548,7 +1521,9 @@ public function validate($row): bool
      * Returns the model's defined validation rules so that they
      * can be used elsewhere, if needed.
      *
-     * @param array $options Options
+     * @param array{only?: list<string>, except?: list<string>} $options Filter the list of rules
+     *
+     * @return array<string, array<string, array<string, string>|string>|string>
      */
     public function getValidationRules(array $options = []): array
     {
@@ -1583,6 +1558,8 @@ protected function ensureValidation(): void
     /**
      * Returns the model's validation messages, so they
      * can be used elsewhere, if needed.
+     *
+     * @return array<string, array<string, string>>
      */
     public function getValidationMessages(): array
     {
@@ -1594,13 +1571,14 @@ public function getValidationMessages(): array
      * currently so that rules don't block updating when only updating
      * a partial row.
      *
-     * @param         array     $rules Array containing field name and rule
-     * @param         array     $row   Row data (@TODO Remove null in param type)
-     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
+     * @param array<string, array<string, array<string, string>|string>|string> $rules
+     * @param row_array                                                         $row
+     *
+     * @return array<string, array<string, array<string, string>|string>|string>
      */
-    protected function cleanValidationRules(array $rules, ?array $row = null): array
+    protected function cleanValidationRules(array $rules, array $row): array
     {
-        if ($row === null || $row === []) {
+        if ($row === []) {
             return [];
         }
 
@@ -1617,8 +1595,6 @@ protected function cleanValidationRules(array $rules, ?array $row = null): array
      * Sets $tempAllowCallbacks value so that we can temporarily override
      * the setting. Resets after the next method that uses triggers.
      *
-     * @param bool $val value
-     *
      * @return $this
      */
     public function allowCallbacks(bool $val = true)
@@ -1643,10 +1619,12 @@ public function allowCallbacks(bool $val = true)
      *
      * If callbacks are not allowed then returns $eventData immediately.
      *
-     * @param string $event     Event
-     * @param array  $eventData Event Data
+     * @template TEventData of array<string, mixed>
+     *
+     * @param string     $event     Valid property of the model event: $this->before*, $this->after*, etc
+     * @param TEventData $eventData
      *
-     * @return array
+     * @return TEventData
      *
      * @throws DataException
      */
@@ -1686,7 +1664,7 @@ public function asArray()
      * class vars with the same name as the collection columns,
      * or at least allows them to be created.
      *
-     * @param 'object'|class-string $class Class Name
+     * @param 'object'|class-string $class
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -1700,12 +1678,12 @@ public function asObject(string $class = 'object')
     /**
      * Takes a class and returns an array of its public and protected
      * properties as an array suitable for use in creates and updates.
-     * This method uses objectToRawArray() internally and does conversion
-     * to string on all Time instances
+     * This method uses `$this->objectToRawArray()` internally and does conversion
+     * to string on all Time instances.
      *
-     * @param object $object      Object
-     * @param bool   $onlyChanged Only Changed Property
-     * @param bool   $recursive   If true, inner entities will be cast as array as well
+     * @param object $object
+     * @param bool   $onlyChanged Returns only the changed properties
+     * @param bool   $recursive   If `true`, inner entities will be cast as array as well
      *
      * @return array<string, mixed>
      *
@@ -1745,17 +1723,17 @@ protected function timeToString(array $properties): array
      * Takes a class and returns an array of its public and protected
      * properties as an array with raw values.
      *
-     * @param object $object      Object
-     * @param bool   $onlyChanged Only Changed Property
-     * @param bool   $recursive   If true, inner entities will be casted as array as well
+     * @param object $object
+     * @param bool   $onlyChanged Returns only the changed properties
+     * @param bool   $recursive   If `true`, inner entities will be cast as array as well
      *
-     * @return array<string, mixed> Array with raw values.
+     * @return array<string, mixed> Array with raw values
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
     protected function objectToRawArray($object, bool $onlyChanged = true, bool $recursive = false): array
     {
-        // Entity::toRawArray() returns array.
+        // Entity::toRawArray() returns array
         if (method_exists($object, 'toRawArray')) {
             $properties = $object->toRawArray($onlyChanged, $recursive);
         } else {
@@ -1765,7 +1743,7 @@ protected function objectToRawArray($object, bool $onlyChanged = true, bool $rec
             $properties = [];
 
             // Loop over each property,
-            // saving the name/value in a new array we can return.
+            // saving the name/value in a new array we can return
             foreach ($props as $prop) {
                 $properties[$prop->getName()] = $prop->getValue($object);
             }
@@ -1777,8 +1755,7 @@ protected function objectToRawArray($object, bool $onlyChanged = true, bool $rec
     /**
      * Transform data to array.
      *
-     * @param object|row_array|null $row  Row data
-     * @param string                $type Type of data (insert|update)
+     * @param object|row_array|null $row
      *
      * @throws DataException
      * @throws InvalidArgumentException
@@ -1844,9 +1821,7 @@ protected function transformDataToArray($row, string $type): array
     /**
      * Provides the db connection and model's properties.
      *
-     * @param string $name Name
-     *
-     * @return array|bool|float|int|object|string|null
+     * @return array<int|string, mixed>|bool|float|int|object|string|null
      */
     public function __get(string $name)
     {
@@ -1859,8 +1834,6 @@ public function __get(string $name)
 
     /**
      * Checks for the existence of properties across this model, and db connection.
-     *
-     * @param string $name Name
      */
     public function __isset(string $name): bool
     {
@@ -1874,10 +1847,9 @@ public function __isset(string $name): bool
     /**
      * Provides direct access to method in the database connection.
      *
-     * @param string $name   Name
-     * @param array  $params Params
+     * @param array<int|string, mixed> $params
      *
-     * @return $this|null
+     * @return $this|array<int|string, mixed>|bool|float|int|object|string|null
      */
     public function __call(string $name, array $params)
     {
@@ -1916,4 +1888,24 @@ protected function convertToReturnType(array $row, string $returnType): array|ob
 
         return $this->converter->reconstruct($returnType, $row);
     }
+
+    /**
+     * Checking that the ID has a rational value.
+     *
+     * Standard type checks in PHP do not fully verify the validity of ID as a primary key.
+     * Especially the values 0, '0', '' are rarely used or are invalid.
+     * Example, if you add an entry with ID=0, it will be an error for `$this->insertID`.
+     *
+     * @param array<int|string, int|string>|float|int|string|null $id
+     *
+     * @throws InvalidArgumentException
+     */
+    protected function hasAllowedValueId($id): bool
+    {
+        if (is_bool($id)) {
+            throw new InvalidArgumentException('The ID value should not be boolean.');
+        }
+
+        return ! in_array($id, [0, '0', '', 0.0], true) && (is_numeric($id) || is_string($id));
+    }
 }
diff --git a/system/Database/BaseBuilder.php b/system/Database/BaseBuilder.php
index eb2dc6f73bd2..f773bae30e4b 100644
--- a/system/Database/BaseBuilder.php
+++ b/system/Database/BaseBuilder.php
@@ -947,8 +947,8 @@ public function orHavingNotIn(?string $key = null, $values = null, ?bool $escape
      * @used-by whereNotIn()
      * @used-by orWhereNotIn()
      *
-     * @param non-empty-string|null                                      $key
-     * @param array|BaseBuilder|(Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder)|null $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
+     * @param non-empty-string|null                                                    $key
+     * @param array<int|string, >|BaseBuilder|(Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder)|null $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
      *
      * @return $this
      *
diff --git a/system/Model.php b/system/Model.php
index 44ed52a0edd0..47e79000159a 100644
--- a/system/Model.php
+++ b/system/Model.php
@@ -16,18 +16,15 @@
 use Closure;
 use CodeIgniter\Database\BaseBuilder;
 use CodeIgniter\Database\BaseConnection;
-use CodeIgniter\Database\BaseResult;
 use CodeIgniter\Database\ConnectionInterface;
 use CodeIgniter\Database\Exceptions\DatabaseException;
 use CodeIgniter\Database\Exceptions\DataException;
-use CodeIgniter\Database\Query;
 use CodeIgniter\Entity\Entity;
 use CodeIgniter\Exceptions\BadMethodCallException;
 use CodeIgniter\Exceptions\ModelException;
 use CodeIgniter\Validation\ValidationInterface;
 use Config\Database;
 use Config\Feature;
-use ReflectionException;
 use stdClass;
 
 /**
@@ -91,7 +88,7 @@
 class Model extends BaseModel
 {
     /**
-     * Name of database table
+     * Name of database table.
      *
      * @var string
      */
@@ -112,7 +109,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
     protected $useAutoIncrement = true;
 
     /**
-     * Query Builder object
+     * Query Builder object.
      *
      * @var BaseBuilder|null
      */
@@ -123,8 +120,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
      * so that we can capture it (not the builder)
      * and ensure it gets validated first.
      *
-     * @var         array{escape: array, data: array}|array{}
-     * @phpstan-var array{escape: array<int|string, bool|null>, data: row_array}|array{}
+     * @var array{escape: array<int|string, bool|null>, data: row_array}|array{}
      */
     protected $tempData = [];
 
@@ -139,7 +135,7 @@ class Model extends BaseModel
     /**
      * Builder method names that should not be used in the Model.
      *
-     * @var list<string> method name
+     * @var list<string>
      */
     private array $builderMethodsNotAvailable = [
         'getCompiledInsert',
@@ -160,9 +156,7 @@ public function __construct(?ConnectionInterface $db = null, ?ValidationInterfac
     }
 
     /**
-     * Specify the table associated with a model
-     *
-     * @param string $table Table
+     * Specify the table associated with a model.
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -173,22 +167,11 @@ public function setTable(string $table)
         return $this;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Fetches the row(s) of database from $this->table with a primary key
-     * matching $id.
-     * This method works only with dbCalls.
-     *
-     * @param bool                  $singleton Single or multiple results
-     * @param array|int|string|null $id        One primary key or an array of primary keys
-     *
-     * @return         array|object|null                                                     The resulting row of data, or null.
-     * @phpstan-return ($singleton is true ? row_array|null|object : list<row_array|object>)
-     */
     protected function doFind(bool $singleton, $id = null)
     {
         $builder = $this->builder();
-
         $useCast = $this->useCasts();
+
         if ($useCast) {
             $returnType = $this->tempReturnType;
             $this->asArray();
@@ -238,30 +221,15 @@ protected function doFind(bool $singleton, $id = null)
         return $rows;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Fetches the column of database from $this->table.
-     * This method works only with dbCalls.
-     *
-     * @param string $columnName Column Name
-     *
-     * @return         array|null           The resulting row of data, or null if no data found.
-     * @phpstan-return list<row_array>|null
-     */
     protected function doFindColumn(string $columnName)
     {
         return $this->select($columnName)->asArray()->find();
     }
 
     /**
-     * Works with the current Query Builder instance to return
-     * all results, while optionally limiting them.
-     * This method works only with dbCalls.
-     *
-     * @param int|null $limit  Limit
-     * @param int      $offset Offset
+     * {@inheritDoc}
      *
-     * @return         array
-     * @phpstan-return list<row_array|object>
+     * Works with the current Query Builder instance.
      */
     protected function doFindAll(?int $limit = null, int $offset = 0)
     {
@@ -298,12 +266,10 @@ protected function doFindAll(?int $limit = null, int $offset = 0)
     }
 
     /**
-     * Returns the first row of the result set. Will take any previous
-     * Query Builder calls into account when determining the result set.
-     * This method works only with dbCalls.
+     * {@inheritDoc}
      *
-     * @return         array|object|null
-     * @phpstan-return row_array|object|null
+     * Will take any previous Query Builder calls into account
+     * when determining the result set.
      */
     protected function doFirst()
     {
@@ -338,15 +304,6 @@ protected function doFirst()
         return $row;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Inserts data into the current table.
-     * This method works only with dbCalls.
-     *
-     * @param         array     $row Row data
-     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
-     *
-     * @return bool
-     */
     protected function doInsert(array $row)
     {
         $escape       = $this->escape;
@@ -402,24 +359,13 @@ protected function doInsert(array $row)
         return $result;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Compiles batch insert strings and runs the queries, validating each row prior.
-     * This method works only with dbCalls.
-     *
-     * @param array|null $set       An associative array of insert values
-     * @param bool|null  $escape    Whether to escape values
-     * @param int        $batchSize The size of the batch to run
-     * @param bool       $testing   True means only number of records is returned, false will execute the query
-     *
-     * @return bool|int Number of rows inserted or FALSE on failure
-     */
     protected function doInsertBatch(?array $set = null, ?bool $escape = null, int $batchSize = 100, bool $testing = false)
     {
-        if (is_array($set)) {
+        if (is_array($set) && ! $this->useAutoIncrement) {
             foreach ($set as $row) {
-                // Require non-empty primaryKey when
+                // Require non-empty $primaryKey when
                 // not using auto-increment feature
-                if (! $this->useAutoIncrement && ! isset($row[$this->primaryKey])) {
+                if (! isset($row[$this->primaryKey])) {
                     throw DataException::forEmptyPrimaryKey('insertBatch');
                 }
             }
@@ -428,14 +374,6 @@ protected function doInsertBatch(?array $set = null, ?bool $escape = null, int $
         return $this->builder()->testMode($testing)->insertBatch($set, $escape, $batchSize);
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Updates a single record in $this->table.
-     * This method works only with dbCalls.
-     *
-     * @param         array|int|string|null $id
-     * @param         array|null            $row Row data
-     * @phpstan-param row_array|null        $row
-     */
     protected function doUpdate($id = null, $row = null): bool
     {
         $escape       = $this->escape;
@@ -443,7 +381,7 @@ protected function doUpdate($id = null, $row = null): bool
 
         $builder = $this->builder();
 
-        if (! in_array($id, [null, '', 0, '0', []], true)) {
+        if ((is_array($id) && $id !== []) || $this->hasAllowedValueId($id)) {
             $builder = $builder->whereIn($this->table . '.' . $this->primaryKey, $id);
         }
 
@@ -461,42 +399,17 @@ protected function doUpdate($id = null, $row = null): bool
         return $builder->update();
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Compiles an update string and runs the query
-     * This method works only with dbCalls.
-     *
-     * @param array|null  $set       An associative array of update values
-     * @param string|null $index     The where key
-     * @param int         $batchSize The size of the batch to run
-     * @param bool        $returnSQL True means SQL is returned, false will execute the query
-     *
-     * @return false|int|list<string> Number of rows affected or FALSE on failure, SQL array when testMode
-     *
-     * @throws DatabaseException
-     */
     protected function doUpdateBatch(?array $set = null, ?string $index = null, int $batchSize = 100, bool $returnSQL = false)
     {
         return $this->builder()->testMode($returnSQL)->updateBatch($set, $index, $batchSize);
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Deletes a single record from $this->table where $id matches
-     * the table's primaryKey
-     * This method works only with dbCalls.
-     *
-     * @param array|int|string|null $id    The rows primary key(s)
-     * @param bool                  $purge Allows overriding the soft deletes setting.
-     *
-     * @return bool|string SQL string when testMode
-     *
-     * @throws DatabaseException
-     */
     protected function doDelete($id = null, bool $purge = false)
     {
         $set     = [];
         $builder = $this->builder();
 
-        if (! in_array($id, [null, '', 0, '0', []], true)) {
+        if ((is_array($id) && $id !== []) || $this->hasAllowedValueId($id)) {
             $builder = $builder->whereIn($this->primaryKey, $id);
         }
 
@@ -521,13 +434,6 @@ protected function doDelete($id = null, bool $purge = false)
         return $builder->delete();
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Permanently deletes all rows that have been marked as deleted
-     * through soft deletes (deleted = 1)
-     * This method works only with dbCalls.
-     *
-     * @return bool|string Returns a SQL string if in test mode.
-     */
     protected function doPurgeDeleted()
     {
         return $this->builder()
@@ -535,39 +441,22 @@ protected function doPurgeDeleted()
             ->delete();
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Works with the find* methods to return only the rows that
-     * have been deleted.
-     * This method works only with dbCalls.
-     *
-     * @return void
-     */
     protected function doOnlyDeleted()
     {
         $this->builder()->where($this->table . '.' . $this->deletedField . ' IS NOT NULL');
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Compiles a replace into string and runs the query
-     * This method works only with dbCalls.
-     *
-     * @param row_array|null $row       Data
-     * @param bool           $returnSQL Set to true to return Query String
-     *
-     * @return BaseResult|false|Query|string
-     */
     protected function doReplace(?array $row = null, bool $returnSQL = false)
     {
         return $this->builder()->testMode($returnSQL)->replace($row);
     }
 
     /**
-     * Grabs the last error(s) that occurred from the Database connection.
+     * {@inheritDoc}
+     *
      * The return array should be in the following format:
-     *  ['source' => 'message']
+     *  `['source' => 'message']`.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
-     *
-     * @return array<string, string>
      */
     protected function doErrors()
     {
@@ -581,14 +470,6 @@ protected function doErrors()
         return [$this->db::class => $error['message']];
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Returns the id value for the data array or object
-     *
-     * @param         array|object     $row Row data
-     * @phpstan-param row_array|object $row
-     *
-     * @return array|int|string|null
-     */
     public function getIdValue($row)
     {
         if (is_object($row)) {
@@ -619,9 +500,23 @@ public function getIdValue($row)
         return null;
     }
 
+    public function countAllResults(bool $reset = true, bool $test = false)
+    {
+        if ($this->tempUseSoftDeletes) {
+            $this->builder()->where($this->table . '.' . $this->deletedField, null);
+        }
+
+        $this->tempUseSoftDeletes = $reset
+            ? $this->useSoftDeletes
+            : ($this->useSoftDeletes ? false : $this->useSoftDeletes);
+
+        return $this->builder()->testMode($test)->countAllResults($reset);
+    }
+
     /**
-     * Loops over records in batches, allowing you to operate on them.
-     * Works with $this->builder to get the Compiled select to
+     * {@inheritDoc}
+     *
+     * Works with `$this->builder` to get the Compiled select to
      * determine the rows to operate on.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      */
@@ -654,27 +549,6 @@ public function chunk(int $size, Closure $userFunc)
         }
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Override countAllResults to account for soft deleted accounts.
-     *
-     * @return int|string
-     */
-    public function countAllResults(bool $reset = true, bool $test = false)
-    {
-        if ($this->tempUseSoftDeletes) {
-            $this->builder()->where($this->table . '.' . $this->deletedField, null);
-        }
-
-        // When $reset === false, the $tempUseSoftDeletes will be
-        // dependent on $useSoftDeletes value because we don't
-        // want to add the same "where" condition for the second time
-        $this->tempUseSoftDeletes = $reset
-            ? $this->useSoftDeletes
-            : ($this->useSoftDeletes ? false : $this->useSoftDeletes);
-
-        return $this->builder()->testMode($test)->countAllResults($reset);
-    }
-
     /**
      * Provides a shared instance of the Query Builder.
      *
@@ -725,7 +599,7 @@ public function builder(?string $table = null)
      * data here. This allows it to be used with any of the other
      * builder methods and still get validated data, like replace.
      *
-     * @param array|object|string               $key    Field name, or an array of field/value pairs, or an object
+     * @param object|row_array|string           $key    Field name, or an array of field/value pairs, or an object
      * @param bool|float|int|object|string|null $value  Field value, if $key is a single field
      * @param bool|null                         $escape Whether to escape values
      *
@@ -748,12 +622,6 @@ public function set($key, $value = '', ?bool $escape = null)
         return $this;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * This method is called on save to determine if entry have to be updated
-     * If this method return false insert operation will be executed
-     *
-     * @param array|object $row Data
-     */
     protected function shouldUpdate($row): bool
     {
         if (parent::shouldUpdate($row) === false) {
@@ -769,17 +637,6 @@ protected function shouldUpdate($row): bool
         return $this->where($this->primaryKey, $this->getIdValue($row))->countAllResults() === 1;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Inserts data into the database. If an object is provided,
-     * it will attempt to convert it to an array.
-     *
-     * @param object|row_array|null $row
-     * @param bool                  $returnID Whether insert ID should be returned or not.
-     *
-     * @return ($returnID is true ? false|int|string : bool)
-     *
-     * @throws ReflectionException
-     */
     public function insert($row = null, bool $returnID = true)
     {
         if (isset($this->tempData['data'])) {
@@ -797,18 +654,6 @@ public function insert($row = null, bool $returnID = true)
         return parent::insert($row, $returnID);
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Ensures that only the fields that are allowed to be inserted are in
-     * the data array.
-     *
-     * @used-by insert() to protect against mass assignment vulnerabilities.
-     * @used-by insertBatch() to protect against mass assignment vulnerabilities.
-     *
-     * @param         array     $row Row data
-     * @phpstan-param row_array $row
-     *
-     * @throws DataException
-     */
     protected function doProtectFieldsForInsert(array $row): array
     {
         if (! $this->protectFields) {
@@ -833,16 +678,6 @@ protected function doProtectFieldsForInsert(array $row): array
         return $row;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Updates a single record in the database. If an object is provided,
-     * it will attempt to convert it into an array.
-     *
-     * @param         array|int|string|null $id
-     * @param         array|object|null     $row
-     * @phpstan-param row_array|object|null $row
-     *
-     * @throws ReflectionException
-     */
     public function update($id = null, $row = null): bool
     {
         if (isset($this->tempData['data'])) {
@@ -860,17 +695,6 @@ public function update($id = null, $row = null): bool
         return parent::update($id, $row);
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Takes a class and returns an array of its public and protected
-     * properties as an array with raw values.
-     *
-     * @param object $object    Object
-     * @param bool   $recursive If true, inner entities will be cast as array as well
-     *
-     * @return array<string, mixed> Array with raw values.
-     *
-     * @throws ReflectionException
-     */
     protected function objectToRawArray($object, bool $onlyChanged = true, bool $recursive = false): array
     {
         return parent::objectToRawArray($object, $onlyChanged);
@@ -879,9 +703,7 @@ protected function objectToRawArray($object, bool $onlyChanged = true, bool $rec
     /**
      * Provides/instantiates the builder/db connection and model's table/primary key names and return type.
      *
-     * @param string $name Name
-     *
-     * @return array|BaseBuilder|bool|float|int|object|string|null
+     * @return array<int|string, mixed>|BaseBuilder|bool|float|int|object|string|null
      */
     public function __get(string $name)
     {
@@ -894,8 +716,6 @@ public function __get(string $name)
 
     /**
      * Checks for the existence of properties across this model, builder, and db connection.
-     *
-     * @param string $name Name
      */
     public function __isset(string $name): bool
     {
@@ -910,7 +730,7 @@ public function __isset(string $name): bool
      * Provides direct access to method in the builder (if available)
      * and the database connection.
      *
-     * @return $this|array|BaseBuilder|bool|float|int|object|string|null
+     * @return $this|array<int|string, mixed>|BaseBuilder|bool|float|int|object|string|null
      */
     public function __call(string $name, array $params)
     {
diff --git a/tests/system/Models/MiscellaneousModelTest.php b/tests/system/Models/MiscellaneousModelTest.php
index 556c1b441c18..ecc09f7851c0 100644
--- a/tests/system/Models/MiscellaneousModelTest.php
+++ b/tests/system/Models/MiscellaneousModelTest.php
@@ -14,7 +14,9 @@
 namespace CodeIgniter\Models;
 
 use CodeIgniter\Database\Exceptions\DataException;
+use CodeIgniter\Exceptions\InvalidArgumentException;
 use CodeIgniter\I18n\Time;
+use PHPUnit\Framework\Attributes\DataProvider;
 use PHPUnit\Framework\Attributes\Group;
 use Tests\Support\Models\EntityModel;
 use Tests\Support\Models\JobModel;
@@ -122,4 +124,46 @@ public function testEmptyDataInTransformDataToArray(): void
         $method = self::getPrivateMethodInvoker($this->model, 'transformDataToArray');
         $method([], 'insert');
     }
+
+    public function testHasAllowedValueIdWithBoolean(): void
+    {
+        $this->expectException(InvalidArgumentException::class);
+        $this->expectExceptionMessage('The ID value should not be boolean.');
+
+        $this->createModel(JobModel::class);
+        $method = self::getPrivateMethodInvoker($this->model, 'hasAllowedValueId');
+        $method(true); // @phpstan-ignore argument.type
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @param float|int|string|null $value
+     */
+    #[DataProvider('provideHasAllowedValueId')]
+    public function testHasAllowedValueId($value, bool $expected): void
+    {
+        $this->createModel(JobModel::class);
+        $method = self::getPrivateMethodInvoker($this->model, 'hasAllowedValueId');
+        $this->assertSame($method($value), $expected);
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @return list<list<bool|float|int|string|null>>
+     */
+    public static function provideHasAllowedValueId(): iterable
+    {
+        return [
+            [0, false],
+            ['0', false],
+            [0.0, false],
+            ['', false],
+            [null, false],
+            ['001', true],
+            [' ', true],
+            [' 0 ', true],
+            [1, true],
+            ['1', true],
+            ['00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000', true],
+            ['codeigniter', true],
+        ];
+    }
 }
diff --git a/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php b/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
index 802896369aa5..ae3c487e1e7c 100644
--- a/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
+++ b/tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
@@ -567,7 +567,7 @@ public function testUpdateThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause($id, string $
         // $useSoftDeletes = false
         $this->createModel(JobModel::class);
 
-        $this->model->update($id, ['name' => 'Foo Bar']);
+        $this->model->update($id, ['name' => 'Foo Bar']); // @phpstan-ignore argument.type
     }
 
     public static function provideUpdateThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause(): iterable
@@ -581,7 +581,7 @@ public static function provideUpdateThrowDatabaseExceptionWithoutWhereClause():
             [
                 false,
                 InvalidArgumentException::class,
-                'update(): argument #1 ($id) should not be boolean.',
+                'The ID value should not be boolean.',
             ],
         ];
     }
diff --git a/tests/system/Models/ValidationModelRuleGroupTest.php b/tests/system/Models/ValidationModelRuleGroupTest.php
index eb50406ab62b..37e0ae4e3e6e 100644
--- a/tests/system/Models/ValidationModelRuleGroupTest.php
+++ b/tests/system/Models/ValidationModelRuleGroupTest.php
@@ -201,7 +201,7 @@ public function testCleanValidationRemovesAllWhenNoDataProvided(): void
             'foo'  => 'bar',
         ];
 
-        $rules = $cleaner($rules, null);
+        $rules = $cleaner($rules, []);
         $this->assertEmpty($rules);
     }
 
diff --git a/tests/system/Models/ValidationModelTest.php b/tests/system/Models/ValidationModelTest.php
index 4a99d8fae5bb..7ec08c9e36ac 100644
--- a/tests/system/Models/ValidationModelTest.php
+++ b/tests/system/Models/ValidationModelTest.php
@@ -189,7 +189,7 @@ public function testCleanValidationRemovesAllWhenNoDataProvided(): void
             'foo'  => 'bar',
         ];
 
-        $rules = $cleaner($rules, null);
+        $rules = $cleaner($rules, []);
         $this->assertEmpty($rules);
     }
 
diff --git a/user_guide_src/source/changelogs/v4.7.0.rst b/user_guide_src/source/changelogs/v4.7.0.rst
index 9399095c1d44..0077ed9e35f6 100644
--- a/user_guide_src/source/changelogs/v4.7.0.rst
+++ b/user_guide_src/source/changelogs/v4.7.0.rst
@@ -48,6 +48,8 @@ Interface Changes
 Method Signature Changes
 ========================
 
+- **BaseModel:** The type of the ``$row`` parameter for the ``cleanValidationRules()`` method has been changed from ``?array $row = null`` to ``array $row``.
+
 - Added the ``SensitiveParameter`` attribute to various methods to conceal sensitive information from stack traces. Affected methods are:
     - ``CodeIgniter\Encryption\EncrypterInterface::encrypt()``
     - ``CodeIgniter\Encryption\EncrypterInterface::decrypt()``
diff --git a/user_guide_src/source/models/model.rst b/user_guide_src/source/models/model.rst
index 57fb52a024c3..5e42a39ca438 100644
--- a/user_guide_src/source/models/model.rst
+++ b/user_guide_src/source/models/model.rst
@@ -750,9 +750,9 @@ The other way to set the validation message to fields by functions,
 
     .. literalinclude:: model/030.php
 
-.. php:method:: setValidationMessages($fieldMessages)
+.. php:method:: setValidationMessages($validationMessages)
 
-    :param  array   $fieldMessages:
+    :param  array   $validationMessages:
 
     This function will set the field messages.
 
diff --git a/utils/phpstan-baseline/argument.type.neon b/utils/phpstan-baseline/argument.type.neon
index 0c99d09b54e3..ee64c6f1290e 100644
--- a/utils/phpstan-baseline/argument.type.neon
+++ b/utils/phpstan-baseline/argument.type.neon
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-# total 85 errors
+# total 84 errors
 
 parameters:
     ignoreErrors:
@@ -197,11 +197,6 @@ parameters:
             count: 1
             path: ../../tests/system/Models/DataConverterModelTest.php
 
-        -
-            message: '#^Parameter \#1 \$id of method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:update\(\) expects array\|int\|string\|null, false\|null given\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../tests/system/Models/UpdateModelTest.php
-
         -
             message: '#^Parameter \#1 \$format of method CodeIgniter\\RESTful\\ResourceController\:\:setFormat\(\) expects ''json''\|''xml'', ''Nonsense'' given\.$#'
             count: 1
diff --git a/utils/phpstan-baseline/loader.neon b/utils/phpstan-baseline/loader.neon
index 4a3fe00ddf57..d9ba475e01d4 100644
--- a/utils/phpstan-baseline/loader.neon
+++ b/utils/phpstan-baseline/loader.neon
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-# total 2795 errors
+# total 2751 errors
 
 includes:
     - argument.type.neon
diff --git a/utils/phpstan-baseline/method.childReturnType.neon b/utils/phpstan-baseline/method.childReturnType.neon
index adf2f2999aaf..0e82a903c408 100644
--- a/utils/phpstan-baseline/method.childReturnType.neon
+++ b/utils/phpstan-baseline/method.childReturnType.neon
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-# total 29 errors
+# total 28 errors
 
 parameters:
     ignoreErrors:
@@ -141,8 +141,3 @@ parameters:
             message: '#^Return type \(CodeIgniter\\Images\\Handlers\\ImageMagickHandler\) of method CodeIgniter\\Images\\Handlers\\ImageMagickHandler\:\:_resize\(\) should be covariant with return type \(\$this\(CodeIgniter\\Images\\Handlers\\BaseHandler\)\) of method CodeIgniter\\Images\\Handlers\\BaseHandler\:\:_resize\(\)$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../system/Images/Handlers/ImageMagickHandler.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Return type \(array\|bool\|float\|int\|object\|string\|null\) of method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:__call\(\) should be covariant with return type \(\$this\(CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\)\|null\) of method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:__call\(\)$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Model.php
diff --git a/utils/phpstan-baseline/missingType.iterableValue.neon b/utils/phpstan-baseline/missingType.iterableValue.neon
index 9bb3a84ef6c0..3cf937172e50 100644
--- a/utils/phpstan-baseline/missingType.iterableValue.neon
+++ b/utils/phpstan-baseline/missingType.iterableValue.neon
@@ -1,67 +1,12 @@
-# total 1386 errors
+# total 1344 errors
 
 parameters:
     ignoreErrors:
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:__call\(\) has parameter \$params with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:__get\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:cleanValidationRules\(\) has parameter \$rules with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:cleanValidationRules\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
         -
             message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:convertToReturnType\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
 
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:doDelete\(\) has parameter \$id with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:doFind\(\) has parameter \$id with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:doFind\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:doFindAll\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:doFindColumn\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:doFirst\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:doInsertBatch\(\) has parameter \$set with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
         -
             message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:doProtectFields\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
             count: 1
@@ -72,66 +17,6 @@ parameters:
             count: 1
             path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
 
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:doUpdate\(\) has parameter \$id with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:doUpdateBatch\(\) has parameter \$set with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:find\(\) has parameter \$id with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:findAll\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:findColumn\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:first\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:getIdValue\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:getValidationMessages\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:getValidationRules\(\) has parameter \$options with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:getValidationRules\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:paginate\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:setAllowedFields\(\) has parameter \$allowedFields with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
         -
             message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:setCreatedField\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
             count: 1
@@ -142,41 +27,11 @@ parameters:
             count: 1
             path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
 
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:setValidationMessage\(\) has parameter \$fieldMessages with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:setValidationMessages\(\) has parameter \$validationMessages with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:setValidationRule\(\) has parameter \$fieldRules with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
         -
             message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:transformDataToArray\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
 
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:trigger\(\) has parameter \$eventData with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:trigger\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\BaseModel\:\:update\(\) has parameter \$id with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/BaseModel.php
-
         -
             message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\CLI\\CLI\:\:isZeroOptions\(\) has parameter \$options with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
             count: 1
@@ -582,11 +437,6 @@ parameters:
             count: 1
             path: ../../system/Database/BaseBuilder.php
 
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Database\\BaseBuilder\:\:_whereIn\(\) has parameter \$values with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Database/BaseBuilder.php
-
         -
             message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Database\\BaseBuilder\:\:batchObjectToArray\(\) has parameter \$object with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
             count: 1
@@ -4097,71 +3947,11 @@ parameters:
             count: 1
             path: ../../system/Images/Image.php
 
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:__call\(\) has parameter \$params with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Model.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:__call\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Model.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:__get\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Model.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:doDelete\(\) has parameter \$id with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Model.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:doFind\(\) has parameter \$id with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Model.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:doInsertBatch\(\) has parameter \$set with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Model.php
-
         -
             message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:doProtectFieldsForInsert\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
             count: 1
             path: ../../system/Model.php
 
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:doUpdate\(\) has parameter \$id with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Model.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:doUpdateBatch\(\) has parameter \$set with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Model.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:getIdValue\(\) return type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Model.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:set\(\) has parameter \$key with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Model.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:shouldUpdate\(\) has parameter \$row with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Model.php
-
-        -
-            message: '#^Method CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:update\(\) has parameter \$id with no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
-            count: 1
-            path: ../../system/Model.php
-
         -
             message: '#^Property CodeIgniter\\Model\:\:\$escape type has no value type specified in iterable type array\.$#'
             count: 1